Sweden: Culture

Appointment alert!

For a Swede, time is a “non-renewable resource”. No one has a right to waste other people’s time – it almost equals to stealing someone’s asset.

One strong piece of advice - NEVER BE LATE! If you must be late for any reason, it is absolutely crucial to phone ahead and let the waiting person know - and you should have a convincing explanation as well. If you realize that you are running REALLY late (like over 30 minutes), always open up for an option of rescheduling the meeting.

Another advice – AVOID COMING TOO EARLY! For this means that you are stealing another visitor’s time or making the host feel uncomfortable about making you wait.

A wise man said: “A meeting that lasts longer than 1.5 hours is a bad meeting”. Make it 1 hour for Sweden. When making an appointment make sure to indicate how long you expect your meeting to last. Alternatively – ask the host how much time she has for you. Try to make sure your meeting has a marked beginning and a marked end. It gives you a double-credit – you appear polite and respectful, and you always know when your meeting is over.

The Swedish attitude to time (that culture researchers call ‘monochronic’) might appear almost fanatical! However, it comes with an obvious advantage for you: during the meeting she is all yours and gives you her undivided attention. Besides, it is highly unlikely to be interrupted by somebody else.

Other tips for making appointments in Sweden:

Try to avoid short-notice meetings and book yours in advance – at least a couple of weeks. Don’t be surprised if your busy Swede turns out to be fully booked for another 3-4 weeks. I know it will affect your planning - take that into consideration!

The good thing is – you do not have to send her reminders, even if you made the appointment two months ago.

Try to send her a draft agenda prior to the meeting or at least specify the questions you would like to discuss. It will help your Swede to prepare for your visit and focus on your issue – in order to optimize the meeting time for both of you.

At the end of the meeting, summarize what’s been discussed and agreed about. When you reach home, send her a little thank-you-for-the-good-meeting- message and present your brief summary again - in a sentence or two. A written word stays in mind better than a one said.

Avoid proposing meetings before 9.00 and after 16.00 – it is very likely that your meeting partner has to rush out of the office to pick up his/her child at the daycare. This is true for both men and women – Sweden is a country of equality.

If you are invited for a social event, especially work-related, try to be on time, too. Pay attention to the invitation card if there is any – it always says what kind of event it is and what the time frames are. Keep to it! It is not appropriate to be 'fashionably late' to dinners. And- Swedes are usually good at leaving at the right time, i.e. before the hosts start yawning.

Avoid making appointments, or at least be prepared for a no-thank-you:

- between June 15th and August 10th (the most typical vacation time in Sweden) - between December 22nd and January 6th (Christmas holidays)

Besides, it would be good to check out what days the Easter holiday happens to be this year, and, consequently, the Easter-related holidays like the Ascension Day or Whitsunday. Not being religious, Swedes enjoy these days-off anyway.

Another thing to remember is the winter sports holiday. Most of the “familied” Swedes tend to take one vacation week in February – March and go skiing for a week (slalom or cross-country). Did you know that Swedes number the weeks – there are 52 or 53 of them in a year? The sport weeks are NN 8, 9 and 10 (check out the current calendar) – be prepared that your Swedish contact might be away skiing one of those weeks.

Or… moose hunting in September if your partner happens to live in Norrland, the Northern part of Sweden. Some things are holy!

Generally, it would be wrong to expect people to work over weekends, holidays, or vacations, since these times are usually highly prized. Swedish businesspeople, however, will take work home with them in the evening. It is acceptable to call a Swedish colleague at home, assuming you have been given his or her phone number and permission to do so. Phone only if the call relates to business matters in the evening of a workday and the matter simply cannot wait until the next day.

Small things:

The workweek is 8:15 or 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday. There is 45 minutes to 1 hour lunch, and many people go to lunch between 11:15 a.m. and 1:30 p.m.

Many workplaces work shorter hours during summertime (May 1-September 1); however, those are mostly in back-office functions and almost never production or sales units.

Remember that many Europeans and South Americans write the day first, then the month, and then the year [e.g., December 3, 2005, is written 3.12.05]. In Sweden you will find both variants [ 03-12-05 and 05-12-03 ]. Be attentive!

Business Dress

Contexts and Values

In today’s Sweden, the guidelines for business dress are simply guidelines – I am sure you will find people of various ages wearing all colors and styles in all social and business setups. “Be yourself!” is the name of the game today. Let us, however, try to formulate the minimum requirements for business dress.

Being rather informal in character, Swedes prefer “smart casual” as the standard for an ordinary working day in the office. “Smart casual” can be many things – however, it is NOT

jeans and sneakers khakis, T-shirts, shorts or too short skirts bare shoulders and décolletage

“Smart” in this context means “comfortable, practical, natural”. You will seldom see a female colleague wearing high heels – how comfortable is that when you’re working?

“Conservative” would probably be an overstatement. Most Swedish men do not wear a tie at work, unless they must or have a special occasion. Should you come from a “conservative dress-culture” you will find Swedes rather “under-dressed” – e.g. non-matching jacket and trousers instead of a suit, no tie, and half-ugly (in some eyes) indoor-shoes.

For higher-level business appointments, men do wear suits and ties, while women wear suits / pantsuits or dresses. Bank and insurance people tend to wear black and dark grey garments, while it is getting more common for other businesspeople to wear lighter and brighter colors, especially during the warmer months.

On the street, “informal” may mean jeans and sneakers, which should always be neat and clean.

For a social gathering, “informal” more often than not means tastefully coordinated clothes, although not necessarily a jacket and tie for men.

The only time that American-style casual clothes are really appropriate, including shorts and T-shirts, is during the summer out in the countryside.

Most restaurants do not require a tie for men, although the upscale restaurants expect both men and women to dress well.

Generally speaking

Swedes are rather tolerant to ‘deviations’ in dress-codes. “Neat and clean” is a must though. How you are dressed means less than what you have to say. In a way, it is accepted that your dress is a part of your personality and therefore should be treated with integrity.

However, what Swedes are sensitive to is when one tries to appear as someone she is not – with help of clothes. It will rather give you credit if you keep a low profile, and avoid anything showy or status linked in your apparel. Even well paid senior executives do not necessarily dress any more elaborately than average employees do. All Swedes typically dress well, but none that much better than others. This reflects the importance of maintaining a sense of equality in this society.

Another little detail: avoid strong perfumes and deodorants – both in business and social meetings. Rather many Swedes are oversensitive and some allergic to strong odors. Even if your counterparts are not allergic, it might be a distracting factor during the meeting.

When packing for Sweden

Sweden is a long county - stretching over 1572 km from south to north. My first piece of advice – become aware of where in Sweden you’re travelling to; this will give you the key to smart packing.

When visiting Gothenburg (the west coast) or Malmö (south) make sure you have rain clothes with you and a spare pair of shoes in case you’re caught by a heavy rain. This is a valid advice for Stockholm, too, both in spring and autumn. Winters are mild there, you will probably not need your fur coat and hat – in fact, you’d be better to spare them.

However, take them with you if you travel north of Stockholm. The further north you move, the more you appreciate the four distinct seasons. During the height of the summer, the weather can be hot and humid. The long winter, which can last for as much as nine months--requires appropriate winter clothes: heavy coats, warm gloves, hats, and boots. As is the case throughout all the Nordic countries, colder weather allows women, and sometimes men, to wear heavy boots to work, and then to change into more comfortable office shoes.

A good principle to keep to is being prepared to dress in layers.

Pack fashionable, yet sensible clothes that can be accessorized in such a way that what you wear during the day can take you into the evening.

A little detail: coming to Sweden in summer you should probably take your sleeping mask with you. Midnight sun in the north of Sweden can keep you awake all night through!

Conversation

The act of communicating involves verbal, nonverbal, and para-verbal components. The verbal component refers to the content of our message‚ the choice and arrangement of our words. The non-verbal component refers to the message we send through our body language. The para-verbal component refers to how we say what we say - the tone, pacing and volume of our voices.

Verbal: what we say As impossible as it is to count a number of words in a language, attempts have been made. As inaccurate as it is, the comparison between the languages displays that the number of words possessed by some of them is by an order greater than that of others.

See one example (with reservation made for the way you define and count words):

there are (said to be) 500 000 words in Russian, and 170 000 words in Swedish.

Basically, it means that Swedes use fewer words to express themselves, the Swedish languages is more “compact”. Sentences tend to be shorter – more direct to the point, so to speak. A virtue in some languages, eloquence is valued lower in Swedish. Content is primary, form – secondary. “We mean what we say and say what we mean”, a Swede would say with pride.

Tips:

At meetings, avoid long and detailed introductions and extended background descriptions – or reframe your presentation and deliver the conclusion/essence first. Later, keep connecting the message to the relevant background, piece by piece. Relevance to the subject should be your guiding star for effective communication with a Swede.

When using interpretation, make sure your interpreter is skilled in handling the two different “types” of language – able to condense extended messages and keep “the red string” in the ocean of words said. Then and only then the interpreter facilitates communication and does not obscure the message for the Swede.

Para-verbal: how we say

Keep emotions to a minimum; cool, calm, and matter of fact is the preferred way in Sweden under all circumstances. Do not use profanity – especially if you have no reason for using it.

Speak in a subdued, modulated tone of voice, as Swedes are a generally quiet people. They might interpret your emotional involvement when speaking as a sign of being upset, and even try to make you calm down.

Swedes accept silence with ease, so it would be a mistake hurriedly to fill in pauses in the conversation.

Use metaphors – they will make you an interesting conversation partner, but avoid culture-bounded figures of speech – they are a low-value “communication noise”.

Irony is another thing you should probably avoid. “Saying what we mean” eliminates the need of it. Being ironic or, even worse, sarcastic could make you appear unfriendly and, even worse, arrogant.

Non-verbal: our body language

“Mind your space” could be a Swedish motto. While minding hers, a Swede would expect you to mind yours. Maintain a distance of two arm-lengths between you and the person with whom you are conversing. I have seen so many Swedes crawl backwards being forced by their advancing foreign conversation partners! Embassy receptions provide a lot of occasions for such observations.

“Minding your space” also applies to gesticulating. Swedes keep their body language and hand gestures to a minimum, rather than relying on nonverbal forms of communication. You see, waving with limbs (and by the way, talking too loud) is in a way “taking somebody else’s space without asking for permission”.

With the exception of the handshake, Swedes do not like physical contact with anyone. Do not backslap, embrace, or touch a Swede unless you know him well enough to know that he does not mind.

Avoid having your hands in your pockets as you talk to someone – it can be looked at as “a bit arrogant”, especially by the eldery. Younger people though are not likely to judge you harshly for doing so.

Conversation

i. Greeting and Introduction

The proper Swedish greeting is to offer your hand as you make eye contact with the person and say, 'God dag', which literally means 'Good Day.' Most often, a simple ‘Hej!’ would suffice even if you do not know each other. Do not be surprised if a complete stranger smiles at you and greets you with ‘Hej!’ – it is totally normal. Do the same thing! When leaving Swedes say ‘Hej då!’ [ ‘hej do:’ ] .

The handshake is common. It is done swiftly and firmly between two men, but not as heartily between men and women or between two women. When a man meets a woman, it is appropriate for either one to initiate the handshake. Shake hands with everyone individually in a group when being introduced and when departing. Handshakes are also part of a Swedish goodbye. Eye contact during the introduction is direct, and should be maintained as long as the person is addressing you.

Usually, a third person will introduce you to a group, but if this doesn't happen, go around the room, shaking hands and telling your name to each person. When you are introduced to people, it is appropriate simply to repeat your name, so that you are sure they know who you are, and that you have the chance to hear their names again and learn them. The order of names in Sweden is the same as in the United States: first name followed by surname.

Once business or social rapport has been established, you may find that the handshake you once received from your Swedish contact will be replaced with an 'air kiss' on both cheeks. You should, however, allow your Swedish contact to set the tone.

ii. Address: Level of formality

Remember, even in public, formal is always better than informal - no gum chewing, slouching, or leaning against things. However, Swedes are rather informal people – also when addressing each other.

In the course of the language reform (‘the you-reform’) of the 1960s, the Swedes effectively “got rid of” the formal Ni (equivalent of Sie in German or the polite Вы in Russian when addressing a person). Since then, the singular pronoun Ni (as opposed to the plural pronoun ni) can be used when addressing an obviously elderly person, and only with the intention of showing her/him special respect. It is by no means a must. A shop assistant might want to do that when serving an elderly lady.

Otherwise, Swedes say “du” to each other. The exceptions are Their Majesties and the Crown Princess whom you address in the third person, i.e. “His Majesty” or “The Crown princess” [“What is His Majesty’s take on the forthcoming hockey match?”].

Swedes like to establish relationships on an informal, but not familiar, level. As people are generally friendly, even to strangers, one might get an impression that everyone knows each other. This is certainly not the case, and getting really knowing each other might take a long while. Once a relationship has been formed, they move to a more familiar level.

Older, upper-class people can be more formal. In this case, be sure to shake their hands when greeting and when departing. They sometimes avoid the pronoun 'you' but instead refer to people in the third person [e.g., when greeting Mr. Jarl, they will say, 'How is Mr. Jarl today'?]. To be appropriately formal, you should respond in the same way, although few young people use this method of speech.

Expect to address a person by his or her first name. Titles are not important in Sweden. Unless you specifically ask the person you talk to what he/she works with you might never find out the title. As in many other Swedish contexts, relevance to the situation decides on whether or not to name one’s title. Titles are no longer part of the address, so instead of “Good morning director Andersson!” you should simply say “Good morning Lars!”.

iii. Topics of conversation

Swedes are not so good at small talk – the sooner to the main subject at hand the better. One exception – the weather! Swedes have a profound appreciation of nature; unlike some people who put human beings above nature, Swedes consider themselves a part of it. Pay attention to their names: Björn (‘bear’), Arne (from archaic ‘eagle’), Ulf (‘wolf’), Alf (‘elfin’), Bergström (‘mountain stream’), Lund (‘grove’), etc..

Weather is a safe subject – make sure you have a phrase or two or at least agree with what your Swedish conversation partner says. Often Swedes complain about “Swedish summer” meaning that it is very short. Swedes love their summer and can get quite romantic describing it!

In connection to the weather-conversation, you might want to inquire about your partner’s country-side home – most of the Swedes own one and are quick to leave the workplace on Friday for spending the weekend there.

Other welcome-topics could be:

Travel Hockey Swedish history Current events Politics [if you know what you're talking about] Vacations and holidays Music Nature

Generally,

Whatever the topic, avoid superficiality in conversation. Being a very ‘specific’ people Swedes are good at sensing it and can lose interest in you.

Avoid conducting a private conversation in public areas, and if you have to do it – do it in a quiet and subdued manner.

“Public” and “private” are two different things, so do not be offended if Swedes do not inquire about your family, work, and so forth. Their assumption is “by asking personal questions I might ‘drop a brick’ and intrude into your intimate area”. You don’t have to avoid it by all means – rather be sensitive and “read” your conversation partner. If the discussion gets sensitive, don't be offended if the Swede abruptly puts it to a stop.

Do not expect a Swede to support your overly critical remarks, especially about a person – it is not really appropriate to criticize in public and especially when the person in question is not present. For the same reason, do not expect a Swede to be overly critical about her employer or working place.

Do not use a lot of superlatives when speaking. The Swedes are opposed to stretching the truth; in fact, they try to limit the superlative effect - like in a phrase “It was fairly fantastic!” [“Det var ganska fantastiskt!”].

Do not use profanity at any time. It is only “uncivilized” or “drunk” people who do that in Sweden.

Scandinavians appreciate knowledge of the differences among the people of Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Showing knowledge in things Swedish, especially aspects that distinguish the Swedes from other Scandinavians would be greatly appreciated.

If you speak any Swedish at all, make the effort to use it. Your efforts will be appreciated, and most Swedes will be impressed that you know some Swedish at all. Recognize, however, that as soon as you are identified as an English speaker, your Swedish colleagues will probably switch to English, if they know it.

Thanking

In Sweden, one hears “thank you” (‘tack!’) much more often than in other countries. Swedes thank when they take and when they give. A clerk in the bank can welcome you by a “ja, tack!” meaning “How can I help you?”

Dialects

Foreigners are amazed at how many different dialects there are in Sweden! Phonetically, there are up to 1000 variants of Swedish. Formally, six “tongues” (‘målområden’) are distinguished in Sweden; they differ not only phonetically but also lexically and stylistically. Naturally, there is also a “neutral” tongue (‘rikssvenska’) spoken in TV, radio etc…that one learns at school.

There is a great deal of pride in local regions; speaking your dialect is a virtue for many Swedes. A Swede can almost always say which region his Swedish conversation partner comes from. However, when everyone speaks English it is hard to hear the person’s origin. To be on the safe side, do not praise one area over another - it is easy to make a mistake.

Topics you might want to avoid or play down

Income Religious preferences Sexual orientation Anything associated with rank, status, and showiness Complaining about the high cost of living in Scandinavia Criticizing the Swedish bureaucracy Criticizing the Swedish culture Personal background

Humour

(after Christine Demsteader, a freelance writer based in Stockholm)

Question: What do you get when you cross an 18th century poet with the king and a British hotelier? Answer: The key to the Swedish sense of humor.

The kind of humor that really cracks up the funny bones of the Swedes isn’t actually home-grown. One (but not the only) important contributor to Swedish humor is, in fact, a highly strung hotel proprietor from south-west England. You may know him as Basil Fawlty, or perhaps that should be John Cleese. “We are culturally oriented towards the British comic tradition,” Jonas Engman, professor in ethnology at Stockholm University, says.

That is probably the reason North Americans often find the Swedish humor incomprehensible. Likewise, Swedes do not comprehend what’s so funny when one slips on a banana skin.

During the 20th century Sweden transformed rather dramatically, from highly hierarchical to egalitarian. Swedes tend not to tell jokes about the prime minister or politicians – political satire is not too popular. Unless you make fun of the leaders as human beings – then you laugh as equals.

Traditionally, Swedes tell jokes about Norwegians, Norwegians about Finns, and Danes about Swedes. Just like in a big happy family!

If you want your joke to get across in Sweden – make sure it is not sarcastic. Sarcasm is rather a sign of bitterness, it is not funny. Avoid “sexual” jokes, too. Even if you feel it is an excellent one, a Swede is unlikely to laugh at it in public – to be (politically) correct is more important.

And – do not be offended if a Swede tells a joke about war that you might consider insensitive. You see, the modern Swedes have no reference to war sufferings - they have been out of war for over 200 years. Unlike the Finns who still remember the World War II campaigns – Finns would not joke about it.

Sweden, along with many other countries, undergoes a modern demographic transformation – from a relatively culturally homogenous country that it was fifty years ago, it is being transformed into a relatively heterogeneous one. Humor today is rather generation- and national culture-bound.

Gift Giving

In general, gift giving is not common among business associates; it is best not to send a gift at any time, including holidays, unless you receive one first from your Swedish colleagues.

Holiday cards
are appropriate, particularly as a thank you for the recipient's business in the previous year, and should be mailed in time to be received the week before Christmas.

Gifts are expected for social events, especially in thanks for private dinner parties. If you choose flowers, bring them with you to the dinner party, and be sure to unwrap them before entering the home or handing them to the hostess. You might want to avoid giving red roses to your female colleague as these usually indicate romantic intent.

Flowers, liquor, wine, cake, or chocolates are appropriate gifts for your hostess when you are invited to a Swedish home. You may also bring candy for the children.

Liquor is a highly appreciated gift, since it is so expensive in Sweden. Fine liquor or wine from the famous wine countries makes a good business gift.

Although exchanging gifts is not common at the beginning of a business relationship, it is appropriate as you are closing your business transaction. Choose a practical gift, rather than one that may be perceived as lavish. Books about your country, as well as desk accessories, all make practical gifts and can also be keepsakes.

If you are staying with a family, an appropriate thank-you gift would be a high-quality product that represents your country and is difficult to get in Sweden. Examples include gourmet foodstuffs [pralines, maple syrup, lobsters, etc.], coffee table books about your home country or city, or anything that reflects your host's personal tastes is appropriate. Don't give your host anything that is easily obtainable in Sweden. If you are given a gift, it might very likely be a small red wooden horse as a home decoration; it is a common folk object, and unique to Sweden.

Gifts are opened immediately. The exception is made for a big party with many participants – in this case the hosts provide a separate gift-table where you can place your gift after greeting the host. Even in this case, the host opens the gifts while the guests are still there – this gives him a chance to express appreciation to the givers.

Let's Make A Deal

Agreement about Time and Place

▼ Book and confirm the appointment well in advance. The Swedes are a planning nation, moreover they are “long-termers”. That means that their schedules are likely to be booked 3-5 weeks from today. Abruptly changing the time and place would be a mistake – the risk is that the Swede simply has no other time in a foreseeable future. This is of great importance in Sweden and should not be underestimated.

▼ Once you have made an appointment with a Swede you do not have to send her reminders, even if you made the appointment two months ago.

▼ Swedes believe in promptness, so it is important that you arrive on time. This nationality also believes in following the scheduled beginning and end times of a meeting.

Preparations for the negotiations

▼ All correspondence with Swedish colleagues should be businesslike, with few references to personal matters. There is just one non-business subject that you can shortly refer to – weather. An example of that can be “Dear Jan! Greetings from rainy London!”

▼ Spend time on preparing a well-structured agenda for the meeting and send it to the Swedes in advance. It will help them to prepare for your visit and focus on the issues that you indicate as important for negotiations – respecting your time, the Swedes would like to optimize the meeting time for both of you.

▼ Women and men are generally treated as equals in this country, so expect decision-makers to be of either gender, and that all members of a team should be involved in the decision making process.

▼ It will be helpful for you to become acquainted with the hierarchy and understand that even if you are meeting with individuals who are in the bottom level of management, they may be key in communicating the decision making process. They may very well have the mandate to make a decision [after having conferred, of course, with colleagues and management].

▼ Most Swedes speak and understand English, so it is not necessary to have your business cards translated into Swedish. Titles and education on your business card are not too important in Sweden. However, your role in the context should be clear to its participants – so choose the relevant ‘title’ for this particular occasion.

What Swedes value when under negotiations?

Objectivity and Matter-of-factness

Swedes respect someone who comes to them with established knowledge and experience. Objective facts rather than subjective feelings form “the truth”. Swedes are taught to think conceptually and analytically, and they tend to look to universal rules or laws to solve their problems.

Facts and figures are crucial, and must be clearly outlined and detailed. Presentations should include handouts and overheads.

Swedes are very detail-oriented, and a meticulously planned, logically organized proposal is instrumental in getting Swedes to accept an outside idea.

Swedes emphasize the content of a presentation and not its colourfulness or flashy appearance. The content should be short, concise and easy to understand - a matter of fact presentation without elaborate language that tends to be overly positive. Often Swedish presentations are lacking in these aspects and do not emphasize them when dealing with foreigners.

Sincerity, Seriousness, Dependability

… rather than friendliness and compliments. Generally, Swedes get right down to business with little or no small talk.

The ability to be a stable, functioning member of the negotiating team is a key.

Consensus and Compromise

The Swedes value consensus as the only way of making decisions and always avoid confrontation. While in many cultures, compromise is perceived as a result of weakness, for Swedes it is the main aim – bringing the positions as close to each other as possible, and finding a solution suitable for both parties. Anything less than a win-win solution would be not worth negotiating.

Character of the meeting

The first meeting may be very low key and matter of fact, with the Swedes evaluating you, your company, and your proposals. The first meeting is typically conducted in the office – to minimize possible distractions from the matter. As a rule, several meetings are necessary before all the details are cleared and questions answered.

Do not show too much emotion during negotiations. Appearing reserved but friendly can leave a positive impression with your Swedish counterpart.

Keep in mind the main Swedish assumption on what successful negotiation is – it is when the parties are benevolent, generous and understanding towards each other’s position. Finding a win-win solution is the goal! The Swede does not want to win at your expense – this is not the point. Listen rather than talk –intelligent listening with mind at peace will take you long!

Raising your voice, showing signs of aggressiveness or (God save!) losing temper produces an effect opposite to what you might anticipate - the Swede would perceive you as immature and unable to keep up an intelligent dialogue.

Humour usually does not have a place in negotiations. Use humour only if you are totally sure that both parties are on the same “wave length”. If in doubt – leave it alone. Irony is another thing you should probably avoid. Being ironic or, even worse, sarcastic could make you appear unfriendly and, even worse, arrogant.

A Good Decision is made by consensus of equals

It is important that everyone involved in the issue is well informed and has been given a chance to express her opinion. Consensus is important – but it takes time. A decision will seldom be made in the first meeting. The good news is that the time spent on making the decision is the time won on the implementation!

You may be surprised to learn that decision making falls to the lower parts of the hierarchy in Sweden, where there is an emphasis on teamwork and compromise. Do not put all of your efforts into ingratiating yourself with top-level executives. In many cases, they will turn over the power to make a decision to their middle managers, who may even pass it over to lower levels. Managers are respected for their knowledge and never by their position.

The role of the boss is to dispense information, provide guidance, and be the key coordinator of the decision-making. Subordinates are colleagues and will follow a decision that has been made within the group in consensus. They will not follow a decision made by a superior. All parties are expected to work alongside each other as equals. There is no real hierarchy; a superior is usually quite accessible and there is a preferred air of informal respect among superiors, staff, and workers.

Decision made

Once decisions are made, they can be confirmed in writing, but you may consider the agreement to be already active. Oral agreement, provided it is witnessed, has the same legally binding power as the written one. Once a deal has been made and signed, you can rest assured that the Swedes will uphold their responsibilities.

Prosperous Entertaining

Business entertaining is a combination of business and social activities, often viewed as relationship bonding or building. It is in one sense a one-to-one client appreciation event and can range from “doing lunch” to sharing interests such as taking an afternoon off to enjoy the first ball game of the season in prime seating. Business entertaining can consist of but not limited to:

business lunches business dinners sporting events (baseball game, basketball game, hockey game, car racing etc.) social events (golf games, deep-sea fishing, tickets to a gala fundraiser or top show, etc).

Business Meals at restaurants

Breakfast

Breakfast meetings are uncommon, except, perhaps, among traveling businesspeople in hotels. Breakfast [‘frukost’ in Swedish] is served around 7:00 to 9:00 a.m. and often includes dried cereals, yoghurt, rolls, cold cuts, cheeses, butter, jam, fruit and perhaps some pickled vegetables or fish. Fish, especially herring, is a key staple. Coffee or tea is the typical drink.

Lunch

Lunch is usually served from 11: 00 to 14:00. Most of the people have lunch at about 11.45 – 12.30 plus-minus 30 minutes. Lunch in a restaurant includes a main course, salad, bread and coffee at a very reasonable price. Another option for lunch consists of an open-faced sandwich containing a rich assortment of ingredients such as meats, cheeses, and vegetables. The traditional Thursday meal is pea soup and pancakes served with jam.

Beer or wine seldom accompanies lunches, either business or social, in cafes, restaurants, or office cafeterias. If you choose to drink alcohol, it is available. Mineral water with or without carbonation, and soft drinks or juice are also available.

The business lunch or dinner is now a more widespread practice, but, it is not necessarily the time to make business decisions. Follow the lead of your Swedish associates; if they bring up business, then it is okay to discuss it, but wait to take your lead from their conversation. Formal restaurants are recommended for business meals. Make reservations in advance. Invite spouses to business dinners, but not to lunches.

In informal restaurants, you may be required to share a table; if so, you are not expected to make conversation. Instead, act as if you are seated at a private table.

Wait-staff may be summoned by making eye contact, since waving or calling their names is very impolite. Tips are generally included in the total price; nevertheless, waiters usually expect an additional 10%.

Dinner

Dinner [‘middag’] is usually served from 6:00 to 7:30 p.m. in Swedish homes, with 7.00 - 8:00 p.m. the usual time for weekend dinner parties. The evening meal may be similar to lunch, with fish, meats, vegetables, and dessert. Drinks served with dinner are usually beers or wine. Coffee is served after the meal (never during and seldom together with the desert] and is often consumed in the living room.

When treating foreign guests, Swedes can offer a variety of locally appreciated food, like salmon or trout, and reindeer-, elk- or deer-meet, fresh or smoked. Berries unique to Scandinavia, such as cloudberries and lingonberries, are often served as a part of a dessert.

Usually, the person who does the inviting pays the bill, although the guest is expected to make the effort to pay. Making payment arrangements ahead of time, before any exchange occurs at the table, is a classy way to host that reduces further complications. It is not uncommon for businesswomen to pick up the check in Sweden, especially if they are on an expense account.

Coffee breaks

Swedes also pause for a coffee break [‘fika’] - once around 10:00 a.m. and again at 14:00. Swedes love coffee, they are Europe’s second large coffee consuming nation (after Finland). They drink filtered coffee that they prepare either in a percolator-type coffee machine, or press in a cylinder filled with hot water. Swedish coffee should be strong but not bitter. Many drink coffee with a drop or two of milk, seldom cream.

For Swedes who do not socialize too much otherwise, a coffee break is an opportunity to discuss non-work-related topics over a cup of coffee. On the other hand, this informal culture welcomes short coffee breaks for making smaller work-related decisions, too. This saves time and effort.

Business entertainment: Seasonal food and occasions

Christmas time

During the month of December, you are likely to be invited to taste ‘Smorgasbord’ [‘smörgåsbord’], a traditional ‘Swedish table’. My first recommendation to you when invited to such an occasion is, - eat your previous meal no later than 6 -7 hours before the ‘Smorgasbord’ dinner starts.

You are expected to make several visits to the smorgasbord table, each time to sample a different kind of dish. With each visit, it is important not to fill up your plate. If you do, you will not be able to sample all the foods, and the proper etiquette at the smorgasbord is to do so.

Your first plate should be for fish, specifically herring; take some with a boiled potato and a little sour cream. Once finished, change plates, and sample some of the other fish - usually salmon of all varieties, and caviars.

Then, take a clean plate for the cold meats, hams and pâté. Put some slices on your plate, along with some salad made from pickles and warm red cabbage. Next, move on to a fourth clean plate for the hot meat course, e.g. meatballs, sausages and spareribs.

Finally, there is usually a fifth plate for dessert – desert cheeses, fruit, candy, chocolate and cakes. One traditional Christmas desert is ‘ris à la Malta’ – a cold rice-porridge mixed with whipped cream and pieces of tangerine or orange and sweetened by sugar and vanilla.

The beverages served with smorgasbord are beer (often specially brewed regional Christmas beer), vodka or snaps (strong herb-flavored spirit, or aquavit). Some people drink wine.

Midsummer time [‘midsommar’]

In modern Sweden, Midsummer's Eve and Midsummer's Day [‘Midsommarafton’ and ‘Midsommardagen’] are celebrated from the eve of the Friday between June 19th and 25th. It is arguably the most important holiday of the year, and one of the most uniquely Swedish in the way it is celebrated, even if it has been influenced by other countries since long ago. The main celebrations take place on the Friday, and the traditional events include raising and dancing around a huge maypole [‘majstång’ or ‘midsommarstång’] to traditional music. One typical dance is the frog dance. Before the maypole is raised, greens and flowers are collected and used to cover the entire pole.

The year's first potatoes, pickled herring, sour cream, and possibly the first strawberries of the season are on the menu. Drinking songs are also important at this feast, and many drink heavily.

Business entertaining at home

Swedes are not very spontaneous in inviting people to their homes. Moreover, you may be surprised at how long it may take to be invited to a dinner at a Swedish home. However, they are hospitable and may invite you to their homes occasionally during the week, but most often on weekends. Invitations will be sent out weeks in advance as the event has to be planned. Be sure to arrive promptly and go with a gift in hand. Fine chocolates, a bottle of wine, or flowers for the hostess all make good gifts.

Meals at a Swedish associate's home can be either relaxed or rather formal; follow the lead from the information your host gives you when you are invited. When in doubt, ask how you should dress. At an informal gathering in a Swedish home, you will be expected to remove your shoes, following a Swedish family tradition. Bring indoor shoes for the party but avoid high heels as Swedes often have good wooden floors in their houses. Do not wander from room to room; much of the house is still out of bounds to the guests. However, Swedes like to keep their houses tidy and most often invite you for a little house-tour upon arrival.

It is not uncommon with a welcome drink or an aperitif before the meal.

The most common toast is ' skål', pronounced 'skohl.' Do not consume your drink until the host or hostess has said ' skål '; only then, should you take your glass and raise it. Maintain direct eye contact from the moment the glass is raised to the moment it is placed back down on the table. If many people are being toasted, make eye contact with each individual as you make the toast.

Men and women are seated next to one another, and couples are often broken up and seated next to people they may not have previously known. The purpose of this arrangement is to promote conversation.

It is polite to try everything served. A butter knife is usually provided. Do not use a dinner knife for butter.When you have finished eating, place your utensils on your plate in a 10 o'clock-4 o'clock position, with your fork tines up.

Always ask permission before smoking. Actually, it is not appropriate to smoke indoors in Sweden. There are many Swedes who do not smoke at all. It is recommended that you either find an appropriate moment to go out for a smoke without drawing too much attention to yourself, or politely ask for a permission to leave the table for a moment or two.

At the end of the dinner party, the male guest of honour is usually obligated to thank the host or hostess, acting on behalf of all the guests. The guest of honour usually precedes the thank-you announcement by tapping his knife gently against his water glass, and then saying 'Tack for maten' [‘thank you for the food’].

Call or write the next day to thank your host and hostess. Should this be impossible be sure to thank the host / hostess for the good time and hospitality nest time you meet him/her, by saying “Tack för senast!” [literally ‘thank you for the previous time’].

If invited to dinner at a home, you may offer to help with the chores, but you will probably not have to. Do not leave the table until invited to do so. Spouses are often included in business dinners [frequently if both business associates are married].

When it is time to depart [usually by 11:00 p.m. or so], make it a point to get up and shake hands with everyone: the group wave is not appreciated.

Never drop by a colleague's home uninvited or unannounced; always phone ahead and ask if it is convenient to drop in.

Public behaviour

There are about 9, 2 million people living in Sweden today. Out of those, ca. 1, 4 million are immigrants from 199 countries of the world. There is no way the country can stay homogenous in terms of culture and habits!

However, there are a number of guidelines that you might find useful.

Comfort zone

“Mind your space” could be a Swedish motto. While minding hers, a Swede would expect you to mind yours. Maintain a distance of two arm-lengths between you and the person with whom you are conversing. I have seen so many Swedes crawl backwards being forced by their advancing foreign conversation partners! Embassy receptions provide a lot of occasions for such observations.

“Minding your space” also applies to gesticulating. Swedes keep their body language and hand gestures to a minimum, rather than relying on nonverbal forms of communication. You see, waving with limbs (and by the way, talking too loud) is in a way “taking somebody else’s space without asking for permission”.

With the exception of the handshake, Swedes do not like physical contact with anyone. Do not backslap, embrace, or touch a Swede unless you know him well enough to know that he does not mind.

Avoid having your hands in your pockets as you talk to someone – it can be looked at as “a bit arrogant”, especially by the elderly. Younger people though are not likely to judge you hard for doing so.

Rules vs. Relationships

Swedes are “universalists” – meaning they respect rules and think that rules apply universally, i.e. to all and at all times. Many people perceive Swedes as ‘squared’ by rules, inflexible and unable to act free.

A Swede would argue that it is rules that give you freedom. You don’t have to think over and over again how to approach dilemmas – just follow the rules (read: contracts, laws). Questioning the rules increases uncertainty – instead of helping to cope with it. This is irrational, isn’t it? Free your mind and imagination for something better than figuring out – over and over again – how to behave in this particular situation.

On the street, do not cross against a red light; instead, wait patiently on the curb until the light turns green. On streets with no traffic lights, be more careful when crossing. However, Swedish drivers are rather careful and usually stop for pedestrians. Maybe out of respect for rules? Maybe because they don’t want to deal with consequences? My observation is that pedestrians in Sweden are spoiled and take for granted that drivers would stop. This is a dangerous habit to have when you suddenly find yourself in New York or Moscow. Streetlights in the major cities have sound devices to assist the blind in crossing: a rapid clicking means, 'green.'

Equality

The Swedish are “universalists” also in terms of genders – gender equality is self-evidence here. You can hardly find an occupation which is entirely male or female. My 30-year-old female friend from the north of Sweden drives a 90-ton-truck in one of the mines up there. A totally natural thing!

When you meet your female business partner, you probably should avoid complements like “You look lovely in your dress!” If she is sharp-tongued, you might get an answer like “And you, too! Your tie matches your eyes in such a nice way!” Everyone appreciates gentlemanlike behaviour – just don’t exaggerate it.

According to the law, Swedish dads are supposed to share the baby care-leave with the moms. Two of the maternity months are ear-marked for the father – a thing seldom seen elsewhere! And Swedish fathers love this – changing diapers, feeding and playing with their children strengthens their fatherhood-feeling and thus emphasises masculinity.

Public vs. Private

The borderline between public and private is much clearer in Sweden than in some other countries. Colleagues seldom talk at work about their private issues. At maximum, they can exchange a couple of friendly phrases like “Have you had a nice weekend? What did you do then? Have you been at the countryside?”

Of course, it happens that colleagues become friends, too. However, most of the Swedes I know enjoy rather old friendships – often from their time in college. “I don’t need new ones when I am quite happy with my old ones”.

Having a “clear-cut” vision allows Swedes to focus on the job or function – it is a way to avoid inefficiency. It helps to give relevant feedback to your colleague and be specific when criticizing– you criticize WHAT is done wrong rather than give a general valuation which is more difficult to interpret (this is often the case with people who are more ‘diffuse’, i.e. having vague borderline between public and private).

Another reason why Swedes tend to keep private issues to themselves, is again “minding their own space” – Swedes are reluctant to load you with their own stuff. And – they do not want your stuff either. An effective tacit agreement!

Do not be surprised that you are not invited to your Swedish partner’s home – it might be a good tradition in your culture, but try to understand him, too. One Swede revealed a secret to me: “If I invite someone to my place, I have to make sure it is clean and nice, and I haven’t had the time to do it”. A private place like home must be adjusted to a business purpose! And he/she might have all the reasons for saying this. You see, it is not common in Sweden to have housekeepers or governesses – both men and women, although working fulltime, are expected to do housework and bring up their children themselves, as responsible family people.

This brings about a relatively new trend in the opposite direction in the Swedish society – the growing role of a responsible parent demands that a Swede sometimes has to prioritize her/his family issues over the job ones. It is totally accepted that you take some time off for visiting your child’s school events or make a medical visit in your working time.

In late spring and summer, you might however be invited to your host’s countryside house. In this case – ties off, leisure clothes and easy talk. Don’t say no – use the chance to get to know him/her and show your interest. “Midsommar” (midsummer holidays in June) can deliver such an occasion. Then you are likely to participate in traditional Swedish celebrations – including dancing the frog-dance around the maypole!

Level of formality

Remember, even in public, formal is always better than informal - no gum chewing, slouching, or leaning against things. However, Swedes are rather informal people – also when addressing each other.

In the course of the language reform (‘the you-reform’) of the 1960s, the Swedes effectively “got rid of” the formal Ni (equivalent of Sie in German or the polite Вы in Russian when addressing a person). Since then, the singular pronoun Ni (as opposed to the plural pronoun ni) can be used when addressing an obviously elderly person, and only with the intention of showing her/him special respect. It is by no means a must. A shop assistant might want to do that when serving an elderly lady.

Otherwise, Swedes say “du” to each other. The exceptions are Their Majesties and the Crown Princess whom you address in the third person, i.e. “His Majesty” or “The Crown princess” [“What is His Majesty’s take on the forthcoming hockey match?”].

Swedes like to establish relationships on an informal, but not familiar, level. As people are generally friendly, even to strangers, one might get an impression that everyone knows each other. This is certainly not the case, and getting really knowing each other might take a long while. Once a relationship has been formed, they move to a more familiar level.

Older, upper-class people can be more formal. In this case, be sure to shake their hands when greeting and when departing. They sometimes avoid the pronoun 'you' but instead refer to people in the third person [e.g., when greeting Mr. Jarl, they will say, 'How is Mr. Jarl today'?]. To be appropriately formal, you should respond in the same way, although few young people use this method of speech.

Expect to address a person by his or her first name. Titles are not important in Sweden. Unless you specifically ask the person you talk to what he/she works with you might never find out the title. As in many other Swedish contexts, relevance to the situation decides on whether or not to name one’s title. Titles are no longer part of the address, so instead of “Good morning director Andersson!” you should simply say “Good morning Lars!”.

Thanking

In Sweden, one hears “thank you” (‘tack!’) much more often than in other countries. Swedes thank when they take and when they give. A clerk in the bank can welcome you by a “ja, tack!” meaning “How can I help you?”

When you meet someone after you have been a guest at his or her house, make it a point to thank him or her at once. You say “Tack för senast!” (‘Thank you for the last time!’). The Swedish think that an extra thank you is never wrong!

Queuing

A VERY Swedish thing! Try bypassing a queue – the others will give you a look that will make you ashamed. Only “uncivilized and hopelessly arrogant” people bypass queues. A bus stop is a good illustration – what a pretty view people lining up for getting on the bus which has not yet arrived!

“Fair play” is another backbone of the Swedish society. Regardless of social status, gender and even age – always take your own place in the queue. First come - first served; no privileges here! You are expected to patiently wait for your turn, no matter how long it takes. On the other hand, once you have reached the cashier, he/she is totally yours for as long as it takes you to get done with your things.

When visiting Swedish authorities, ticket offices, or shops with personal sales service, always start with finding a queue ticket vending machine around. Press the button, get your number and wait until it shows up on the display.

Smoking

Smoking is prohibited almost everywhere. You should always pay attention to specially designated smoking areas equipped with wind-proof ashtrays. In some restaurants, although you should not expect it by default, there might be a smoking area. Otherwise, you are expected to smoke outside the building (where you will find your ashtray).

By many, smoking is seen as an irrational act, somewhat of a measure of your maturity. Why do you keep smoking if you know that half of all smokers end up having an early death?

Drinking

The Swedish government has a monopoly on the import of alcohol. Alcohol stronger than 3,5% can be bought from the non-profit, government-run liquor store Systembolaget. Lighter alcoholic beverages are sold in ordinary grocery-stores. Restaurants and bars must obtain a license for selling/serving alcohol.

Many foreigners coming from more ‘liberal’ countries strongly dislike the monopoly. However, having lived here for some time one realizes that the coin has two sides.

On the upside, you have a huge assortment of quality wines from all over the world, and it does not cost you a fortune. Systembolaget is a very mighty importer, which has long-term and high-volume contracts with a large number of wineries in the world. This helps to make good wine accessible to everyone. Besides, you can always consult knowledgeable shop assistants in all wine-related matters – which for example helps to arrange a good dinner with “right” wines served with “right” food.

On the downside, the Systembolaget shops are not to be found at every corner, and they are closed on Sundays. On Saturdays, the opening hours are 10.00 – 15.00. So you have to plan your alcohol purchase in advance which is sometimes irritating.

However, one gets used to it, and most of the people conclude that the upside overweighs the downside. Systembolaget provides import services for private individuals, too. So if you travel the world and have found the wine of your dreams that you want to have in your cellars, place an order with Systembolaget and they will take care of the import for you. This service is not too expensive.

Drunken driving laws are strictly enforced; it would be a mistake to have even one drink and drive. And – since Sweden is one of the top three countries in the world with lowest corruption level - please do not attempt bribing police officers if you get caught. It will only double the trouble.

Public transport

Public transport consists of buses, subway (‘tunnelbana’ or ‘T-bana’ in Swedish) in major cities and in some cities trams, as well as ferries and, to some extent, passenger boats.

The subway system stops operating after midnight or 1 a.m. unless on special occasions. Most of the bus-lines continue operating during the night, with 1-hour interval.

In Stockholm (and soon in the whole country), you cannot buy your bus ticket onboard the bus. This is done in order to minimize cash transactions and also make the drivers’ working place safer, especially during night hours.

You should think about it in advance and choose one of the following ways of obtaining tickets:

buying a set of coupons (16 pieces, ‘remsa’ in Swedish) at kiosks (e.g. Pressbyrå), post offices and in some smaller shops, as well as at the entrance into the subway stations, buying a period card – for the desired number of days, weeks or months, buying a one-time ticket in a vending machine that is to be found on quite many bus stops, buying a ticket via SMS – if you have a Swedish sim-card in your mobile phone.

Soon a new electronic ticketing system will be introduced in the whole country – SL Access – that will replace these multiple choices for buying tickets.

More information in English is to be found at www.sl.se. This page also provides a Journey Planner that enables you to plan your journey throughout the whole major Stockholm area in detail.

Taxi

The easiest way to catch a cab is at designated taxi stands. Hotels are good places to find a taxi, but often charge more for the same ride; a hotel surcharge is added to the meter fare, in some cases. It is not customary to stop cabs in the street. Even if the cab seems to be vacant, it is most probably pre-booked and therefore won’t stop.

Many enterprises have accounts with taxi companies. If you are visiting an office where there is a reception, you can always ask the receptionist to assist you with a cab.

All cabs are equipped with card payment terminals. You pay according to your taximeter and are always offered a receipt. It is totally up to you to pay tip or not – the drivers do not expect it ‘by default’.

If you arrive / travel in Stockholm the following taxi companies are considered to be the most reliable in terms of service quality: Taxi 020, Taxi Stockholm, Taxi Kurir.

About Sweden

In brief

Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe.

Total population - over 9.2 million. Sweden has a low population density of 21 people per km² (53 per square mile), but with a considerably higher density in the southern half of the country.

Of the population about 13.4% (1.23 million) were born abroad. This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, earlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration. Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards.

About 85% of the population lives in an urban area.

Capital - Stockholm, the largest city in the country (population of 1.3 million in the urban area and with 2 million in the metropolitan area). The second and third largest cities are Gothenburg and Malmö.

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government.

Sweden has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995 and is a member of the OECD. Swedes have rejected the euro in a popular vote and Sweden maintains its own currency, the Swedish krona (SEK). The Swedish Riksbank founded in 1668 thus is the oldest central bank in the world.

Geography

Sweden is surrounded by Norway (west), Finland (northeast), the Skagerrak, Kattegat and Öresund straits (southwest) and the Baltic Sea (east). It has maritime borders with Denmark, Germany, Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, and it is also linked to Denmark (southwest) by the Öresund Bridge.

At 449,964 km2 (173,732 sq mi), Sweden is the 55th largest country in the world. It is the 5th largest in Europe, and the largest in Northern Europe. The land area is slightly larger than the U.S. state of California, or equal to Uzbekistan.

Sweden has 25 provinces or ‘landskap’, based on culture, geography and history; Bohuslän, Blekinge, Dalarna, Dalsland, Gotland, Gästrikland, Halland, Hälsingland, Härjedalen, Jämtland, Lapland, Medelpad, Norrbotten, Närke, Skåne, Småland, Södermanland, Uppland, Värmland, Västmanland, Västerbotten, Västergötland, Ångermanland, Öland and Östergötland.

While these provinces serve no political or administrative purpose, they play an important role for people's self-identification. The provinces are usually grouped together in three large lands or parts, the northern Norrland, the central Svealand and southern Götaland. The sparsely populated Norrland encompasses almost 60% of the country.

About 15% of Sweden lies north of the Arctic Circle.

Climate

Most of Sweden has a temperate climate, despite its northern latitude, with four distinct seasons and mild temperatures throughout the year. The country can be divided into three types of climate:

the southernmost part has an oceanic climate, the central part has a humid continental climate and the northernmost part has a subarctic climate.

However, Sweden is much warmer and drier than other places at a similar latitude, and even somewhat further south, mainly because of the Gulf Stream. For example, central and southern Sweden has much warmer winters than many parts of Russia, Canada, and the northern United States.

Because of its high northern latitude, the length of daylight varies greatly. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and for part of the winter the sun never rises. The capital of Stockholm's daylight lasts for more than 18 hours in late June, but only around 6 hours in late December. Most of Sweden has between 1,600 to 2,000 hours of sunshine annually.

Temperatures vary greatly from north to south. Southern and central parts of the country have warm summers and cold winters, with average high temperatures of 20 to 25°C (68–77°F) and lows of 12 to 15°C (53–59°F) in the summer, and average temperatures of −4 to 2°C (25–36°F) in the winter. The northern part of the country has shorter, cooler summers and longer, colder and snowier winters, with temperatures that often drop below freezing from September through May. Occasional heatwaves can occur a few times each year, and temperatures above 25 °C (77 °F) occur on many days during the summer, sometimes even in the north. The highest temperature ever recorded in Sweden was 38 °C (100.4 °F) in 1947, while the coldest temperature ever recorded was −52.6°C (−63.7°F) in 1966.

Administration and politics

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy, in which King Carl XVI Gustaf is head of state, but royal power has long been limited to official and ceremonial functions.

The nation's legislative body is the Riksdag (Swedish Parliament), with 349 members, which chooses the Prime Minister. Parliamentary elections are held every four years, on the third Sunday of September.

Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or ‘kommuner’, with a total of 290 municipalities in 2004. Municipal government in Sweden is similar to city commission government and cabinet-style council government. A legislative municipal assembly (‘kommunfullmäktige’) of between 31 and 101 members (always an uneven number) is elected from party-list proportional representation at municipal elections, held every four years in conjunction with the national parliamentary elections.

The municipalities are also divided into a total of 2,512 parishes, or ‘församlingar’ (2000). These have traditionally been a subdivision of the Church of Sweden, but still have importance as districts for census and elections.

Economy and Trade

Sweden is an export-oriented market economy featuring a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. Sweden's engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. Telecommunications, the automotive industry and the pharmaceutical industries are also of great importance. Agriculture accounts for 2 percent of GDP and employment.

The 20 largest (by turnover in 2007) companies registered in Sweden are Volvo, Ericsson, Vattenfall, Skanska, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, Scania, ICA, Hennes & Mauritz, Nordea, Preem, Atlas Copco, Securitas, Nordstjernan, and SKF.

Sweden's industry is overwhelmingly in private control; unlike some other industrialized Western countries, such as Austria and Italy, publicly owned enterprises were always of minor importance.

The largest trade flows are with Germany, the United States, Norway, the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Finland.

Language

The primary language of Sweden is Swedish, a North Germanic language, related and very similar to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Norwegians have little difficulty understanding Swedish, and Danes can also understand it, with slightly more difficulty than the Norwegians.

Although Swedish is the dominant language, it is not the official language. Swedish speaking Finns are Sweden's largest linguistic minority, comprising about 3 percent of Sweden's population and Finnish is recognised as a minority language. Four other minority languages are Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish. The issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language has been raised and the parliament voted on the matter in 2005 but the proposal narrowly failed.

A majority of Swedes understand and speak English thanks to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films.

Religion

Generally speaking, Sweden is a rather secularised country. Relatively few people practice their religion actively. However, there are some traditions and rituals that even non-religious people gladly keep for they have a general humanistic appeal – christening, confirmation, marriage ceremony and funeral. “One does not have to be religious in order to be a decent person” – a popular saying goes. Besides, churches attract quite a number of people for their choral traditions. Very many Swedes sing in amateur choirs that are ‘connected’ to churches.

The dominant religion is Lutheranism which “replaced” Roman Catholicism in the course of the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s.

The Sami (living in northernmost part of Sweden) originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Some 275,000 Swedes are today members of various free churches, and, in addition, immigration has meant that there are now some 92,000 Roman Catholics and 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians living in Sweden.

Because of immigration, Sweden also has a significant Muslim population. Almost half a million are Muslims by tradition, but approximately 5% (25,000) of these actively practise Islam (in the sense of attending Friday prayer and praying five times a day).